Journal of Multidisciplinary Applied Natural Science
Periódico de Acesso Aberto
Scopus CiteScore 2025
2.1
Calculated on 05 May, 2025
SJR 2025
0.25
Powered by scimagojr.com
Periódico de Acesso Aberto
2.1
Calculated on 05 May, 2025
0.25
Powered by scimagojr.com
https://doi.org/10.47352/jmans.2774-3047.473
Rezza Ruzuqi
Agus Sigit Pramono
Lukman Noerochim
Rechargeable seawater batteries (RSBs) are a new class of seawater-based energy storage technology. In this system, the two electrolytes—the non-aqueous anolyte and seawater as the catholyte—have distinct compositions. As an eco-friendly option, the technology is promising, with the potential to replace traditional rechargeable batteries and reduce harmful environmental impacts. It can also be used in locales without access to power. There are different classes of RSBs, including sodium-based (Na-RSBs). At present, Na-RSBs systems have attracted much more attention due to the availability of solvents derived from abundant sodium sources in seawater and because of their superior material costs and safety compared to lithium (Li)-based batteries. Nonetheless, Na-RSBs are inherently restricted by the relatively low theoretical capacity and electrochemical potential of sodium. As a result, magnesium-based rechargeable seawater batteries (Mg-RSBs) have emerged as a promising alternative. Magnesium is attractive because it offers a higher theoretical volumetric capacity (~3833 mAh cm⁻³) and a better cost-performance ratio than Li-ion batteries and Na-RSB systems. Given these merits, we summarize the potential of magnesium as a candidate alternative to sodium in RSB applications. To develop their potential, some strategies (alloying, surface modification, bifunctional catalyst design, and solid–liquid hybrid electrolyte construction) are proposed. The perspective concludes with an outlook that emphasizes the importance of accounting for integrated electrolyte–separator design, interface manipulation, and corrosion-mitigation strategies to realize the potential of Mg-RSBs as a high-durability, long-life, and economical battery system, especially in off-grid applications.
[1] Z. Yang, J. Zhang, M. C. W. Kintner-Meyer, X. Lu, D. Choi, J. P. Lemmon, and J. Liu. (2011). "Electrochemical Energy Storage for Green Grid". Chemical Reviews. 111 : 3577-3613. 10.1021/cr100290v.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/cr100290v[2] O. Schmidt, A. Hawkes, A. Gambhir, and I. Staffell. (2017). "The Future Cost of Electrical Energy Storage Based on Experience Rates". Nature Energy. 2 : 17110. 10.1038/nenergy.2017.110.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nenergy.2017.110[3] T. Perveen, M. Siddiq, N. Shahzad, R. Ihsan, A. Ahmad, and M. I. Shahzad. (2020). "Prospects in Anode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries: A Review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 119 : 109549. 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109549.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109549[4] D. H. Nam, M. A. Lumley, and K. S. Choi. (2021). "A Seawater Battery with Desalination Capabilities Enabling a Dual-Purpose Aqueous Energy Storage System". Energy Storage Materials. 37 : 556-566. 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.02.037.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.02.037[5] F. Liu, T. Wang, X. Liu, and L. Fan. (2021). "Challenges and Recent Progress on Key Materials for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries". Advanced Energy Materials. 11 : 2000787. 10.1002/aenm.202000787.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202000787[6] R. Mohtadi, O. Tutusaus, T. S. Arthur, Z. Zhao-Karger, and M. Fichtner. (2021). "The Metamorphosis of Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries". Joule. 5 : 581-617. 10.1016/j.joule.2020.12.021.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.12.021[7] X. Luo, A. Shen, B. Liu, J. Wu, M. Fan, N. Yang, G. Zhang, X. Chen, and Q. Dai. (2025). "The Interfacial Reactions of Mg Battery Anodes". Journal of Magnesium and Alloys. 13 : 1915-1938. 10.1016/j.jma.2025.04.031.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2025.04.031[8] X. Wu, Y. Dou, R. Lian, Y. Wang, and Y. Wei. (2022). "Understanding Rechargeable Magnesium Ion Batteries via First-Principles Computations: A Comprehensive Review". Energy Storage Materials. 48 : 344-355. 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.03.039.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2022.03.039[9] S. Abdessameud, M. Mezbahul-Islam, and M. Medraj. (2014). "Thermodynamic Modeling of Hydrogen Storage Capacity in Mg-Na Alloys". The Scientific World Journal. 2014 : 190320. 10.1155/2014/190320.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/190320[10] Y. Kim, A. Varzi, A. Mariani, G. T. Kim, Y. Kim, and S. Passerini. (2021). "Redox-Mediated Red-Phosphorous Semi-Liquid Anode Enabling Metal-Free Rechargeable Na-Seawater Batteries with High Energy Density". Advanced Energy Materials. 11 : 2102061. 10.1002/aenm.202102061.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202102061[11] P. W. Jaschin, Y. Gao, Y. Li, and S. H. Bo. (2020). "A Materials Perspective on Magnesium-Ion-Based Solid-State Electrolytes". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 8 : 2875-2897. 10.1039/C9TA11729F.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA11729F[12] Z. Wang, R. Deng, Y. Wang, and F. Pan. (2024). "Comparison of Construction Strategies of Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) in Li Battery and Mg Battery: A Review". Molecules. 29 : 4761. 10.3390/molecules29194761.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29194761[13] W. Zhang, B. Feng, L. Huang, Y. Liang, J. Chen, X. Li, Z. Shi, and N. Wang. (2024). "Fe/Cu Diatomic Sites Dispersed on Nitrogen-Doped Mesoporous Carbon for the Boosted Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Mg-Air and Zn-Air Batteries". Applied Catalysis B: Environment and Energy. 358 : 124450. 10.1016/j.apcatb.2024.124450.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2024.124450[14] W. Zhang, X. Li, S. Guo, X. Wu, Y. Tang, Z. Wan, L. Huang, Z. Shi, and N. Wang. (2025). "Long-Range Electronic Modulation of Fe Atomic Sites via Third Coordination Layer Selenium Anchoring for Enhanced Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Zn-Air and Mg-Air Batteries". Chemical Engineering Journal. 521 : 167173. 10.1016/j.cej.2025.167173.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.167173[15] J. Liu, H. Hu, T. Wu, J. Chen, X. Yang, N. Wang, and Z. Shi. (2024). "Tailoring the Microstructure of Mg-Al-Sn-RE Alloy via Friction Stir Processing and the Impact on Its Electrochemical Discharge Behaviour as the Anode for Mg-Air Battery". Journal of Magnesium and Alloys. 12 : 1554-1565. 10.1016/j.jma.2022.07.016.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2022.07.016[16] S. T. Senthilkumar, W. Go, J. Han, L. Pham Thi Thuy, K. Kishor, Y. Kim, and Y. Kim. (2019). "Emergence of Rechargeable Seawater Batteries". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 7 : 22803-22825. 10.1039/C9TA08321A.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TA08321A[17] S. M. Hwang, J. Park, Y. Kim, W. Go, J. Han, Y. Kim, and Y. Kim. (2019). "Rechargeable Seawater Batteries: From Concept to Applications". Advanced Materials. 31 : 1804936. 10.1002/adma.201804936.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201970141[18] M. Guo, C. Yuan, T. Zhang, and X. Yu. (2022). "Solid-State Electrolytes for Rechargeable Magnesium-Ion Batteries: From Structure to Mechanism". Small. 18 : 2106981. 10.1002/smll.202106981.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202106981[19] J. Chen, W. Xu, X. Wang, S. Yang, and C. Xiong. (2023). "Progress and Applications of Seawater-Activated Batteries". Sustainability. 15 : 1635. 10.3390/su15021635.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021635[20] C. Wu, X. Meng, and W. Wang. (2020). "High-Performance Mg-Al-Bi Alloy Anode for Seawater Batteries and Related Mechanisms". Processes. 8 : 1362. 10.3390/pr8111362.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8111362[21] H. T. El-Dessouky and H. M. Ettouney. (2002)."Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination". Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.
[22] Y. Jia, B. Q. Li, C. X. Zhang, and Q. Zhang. (2020). "Seawater Electrolyte-Based Metal-Air Batteries: From Strategies to Applications". Energy & Environmental Science. 13 : 3253-3268. 10.1039/D0EE01617A.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EE01617A[23] M. Kotobuki, B. Yan, and L. Lu. (2023). "Recent Progress on Cathode Materials for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries". Energy Storage Materials. 54 : 227-253. 10.1016/j.ensm.2022.10.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2022.10.034[24] X. Zhang, T. Chen, D. Yan, W. Qin, B. Hu, Z. Sun, and L. Pan. (2015). "MgFe2O4/Reduced Graphene Oxide Composites as High-Performance Anode Materials for Sodium Ion Batteries". Electrochimica Acta. 180 : 616-621. 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.09.002.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.09.002[25] Y. Guo, Y. Zhu, C. Yuan, and C. Wang. (2017). "MgFe2O4 Hollow Microboxes Derived from Metal-Organic Frameworks as Anode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries". Materials Letters. 199 : 101-104. 10.1016/j.matlet.2017.04.069.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2017.04.069[26] M. Ambrosetti, I. Quinzeni, A. Girella, V. Berbenni, B. Albini, P. Galinetto, M. Sturini, and M. Bini. (2024). "Pure and (Sn or Mg) Doped GeFe2O4 as Anodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries". Batteries. 10 : 134. 10.3390/batteries10040134.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040134[27] Y. Cao, W. Li, F. Wang, X. Hao, and J. Tan. (2023). "Experimental Study of Discharging Magnesium-Dissolved Oxygen Seawater Batteries with Various Binder Ratios". Applied Sciences. 13 : 12996. 10.3390/app132412996.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app132412996[28] T. Zhang, Z. Tao, and J. Chen. (2014). "Magnesium-Air Batteries: From Principle to Application". Materials Horizons. 1 : 196-206. 10.1039/C3MH00059A.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C3MH00059A[29] A. I. Ikeuba, P. C. Iwuji, I. I. E. Nabuk, O. E. Obono, D. Charlie, A. A. Etim, B. I. Nwabueze, and J. Amajama. (2024). "Advances on Lithium, Magnesium, Zinc, and Iron-Air Batteries as Energy Delivery Devices: A Critical Review". Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry. 28 : 2999-3025. 10.1007/s10008-024-05866-x.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-024-05866-x[30] J. Ma, P. Hu, X. Jia, C. Zhang, and G. Wang. (2021). "Organic/Inorganic Double Solutions for Magnesium-Air Batteries". RSC Advances. 11 : 7502-7510. 10.1039/D0RA10528G.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0RA10528G[31] M. A. Osipenko, A. A. Kasach, J. Adamiec, M. Zimowska, I. I. Kurilo, and D. S. Kharytonau. (2023). "Corrosion Inhibition of Magnesium Alloy AZ31 in Chloride-Containing Solutions by Aqueous Permanganate". Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry. 27 : 1847-1860. 10.1007/s10008-023-05472-3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10008-023-05472-3[32] S. Abbasi, M. Aliofkhazraei, H. Mojiri, M. Amini, M. Ahmadzadeh, and M. Shourgeshty. (2017). "Corrosion Behavior of Pure Mg and AZ31 Magnesium Alloy". Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces. 53 : 573-578. 10.1134/S2070205117030029.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S2070205117030029[33] X. Wei, Z. Li, P. Liu, S. Li, X. Peng, R. Deng, and Q. Zhao. (2020). "Improvement in Corrosion Resistance and Biocompatibility of AZ31 Magnesium Alloy by NH2+ Ions". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 813 : 153832. 10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.153832.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2020.153832[34] T. Chen, G. Ceder, G. S. Gautam, and P. Canepa. (2019). "Evaluation of Mg Compounds as Coating Materials in Mg Batteries". Frontiers in Chemistry. 7 : 24. 10.3389/fchem.2019.00024.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fchem.2019.00024[35] W. Lee, J. Park, J. Park, S. J. Kang, Y. Choi, and Y. Kim. (2020). "Identifying the Mechanism and Impact of Parasitic Reactions Occurring in Carbonaceous Seawater Battery Cathodes". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 8 : 9185-9193. 10.1039/D0TA02913K.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0TA02913K[36] H. Parangusan, J. Bhadra, and N. A. Al-Thani. (2021). "A Review of Passivity Breakdown on Metal Surfaces: Influence of Chloride- and Sulfide-Ion Concentrations, Temperature, and pH". Emergent Materials. 4 : 1187-1203. 10.1007/s42247-021-00194-6.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-021-00194-6[37] G. Williams, H. A. L. Dafydd, R. Subramanian, and H. N. McMurray. (2017). "The Influence of Chloride Ion Concentration on Passivity Breakdown in Magnesium". Corrosion. 73 : 471-481. 10.5006/2328.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5006/2328[38] S. Khalifeh and T. D. Burleigh. (2017). "Effect of Anodizing Parameters on Corrosion Resistance of Coated Purified Magnesium". arXiv Preprint. 10.48550/arXiv.1706.09547.
[39] C. Carré, A. Zanibellato, M. Jeannin, R. Sabot, P. Gunkel-Grillon, and A. Serres. (2020). "Electrochemical Calcareous Deposition in Seawater: A Review". Environmental Chemistry Letters. 18 : 1193-1208. 10.1007/s10311-020-01002-z.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01002-z[40] J. J. Pryke, R. M. Kennard, and S. A. Cussen. (2022). "Cathodes for Mg Batteries: A Condensed Review". Energy Reports. 8 83-88. 10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.124.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.07.124[41] M. Javed, A. Shah, J. Nisar, S. Shahzad, A. Haleem, and I. Shah. (2024). "Nanostructured Design Cathode Materials for Magnesium-Ion Batteries". ACS Omega. 9 : 4229-4245. 10.1021/acsomega.3c06576.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c06576[42] X. Chen, S. Wei, F. Tong, M. P. Taylor, and P. Cao. (2021). "Electrochemical Performance of Mg-Sn Alloy Anodes for Magnesium Rechargeable Battery". Electrochimica Acta. 398 : 139336. 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139336.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139336[43] D. Gu, Y. Yuan, X. Peng, D. Li, L. Wu, G. Huang, J. Wang, and F. Pan. (2024). "Realizing High-Stability Anodes for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries via In Situ-Formed Nanoporous Bi and Nanosized Sn". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 12 : 26890-26901. 10.1039/D4TA04998E.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D4TA04998E[44] X. Chen, X. Liu, M. Zhang, M. Liu, and A. Atrens. (2021). "A Comprehensive Review of the Development of the Magnesium Anode for Primary Batteries". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 9 : 12367-12399. 10.1039/D1TA01471D.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TA01471D[45] R. Deivanayagam, B. J. Ingram, and R. Shahbazian-Yassar. (2019). "Progress in Development of Electrolytes for Magnesium Batteries". Energy Storage Materials. 21 : 136-153. 10.1016/j.ensm.2019.05.028.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.05.028[46] D. Li, Y. Yuan, J. Liu, M. Fichtner, and F. Pan. (2020). "A Review on Current Anode Materials for Rechargeable Mg Batteries". Journal of Magnesium and Alloys. 8 : 963-979. 10.1016/j.jma.2020.09.017.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2020.09.017[47] R. Yang, W. Yao, B. Tang, F. Zhang, X. Lei, C. S. Lee, and Y. Tang. (2021). "Development and Challenges of Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Mg Batteries". Energy Storage Materials. 42 : 687-704. 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.08.019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.08.019[48] G. Wang, Z. Wang, H. Shi, A. Du, M. Sun, and G. Cui. (2024). "Progress and Perspective on Rechargeable Magnesium-Ion Batteries". Science China Chemistry. 67 : 214-246. 10.1007/s11426-022-1454-0.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11426-022-1454-0[49] M. Deng, L. Wang, D. Höche, S. V. Lamaka, P. Jiang, D. Snihirova, N. Scharnagl, and M. L. Zheludkevich. (2020). "Ca/In Micro-Alloying as a Novel Strategy to Simultaneously Enhance Power and Energy Density of Primary Mg-Air Batteries from Anode Aspect". Journal of Power Sources. 472 : 228528. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228528.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228528[50] Z. Li, J. Häcker, M. Fichtner, and Z. Zhao-Karger. (2023). "Cathode Materials and Chemistries for Magnesium Batteries: Challenges and Opportunities". Advanced Energy Materials. 13 : 2300682. 10.1002/aenm.202300682.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202300682[51] X. Wang, C. Jing, Y. Chen, X. Wang, G. Zhao, X. Zhang, L. Wu, X. Liu, B. Dong, and Y. Zhang. (2020). "Active Corrosion Protection of Super-Hydrophobic Corrosion Inhibitor Intercalated Mg-Al Layered Double Hydroxide Coating on AZ31 Magnesium Alloy". Journal of Magnesium and Alloys. 8 : 291-300. 10.1016/j.jma.2019.11.011.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2019.11.011[52] D. H. Kim, H. Choi, D. Y. Hwang, J. Park, K. S. Kim, S. Ahn, Y. Kim, S. K. Kwak, Y. Yu, and S. J. Kang. (2018). "Reliable Seawater Battery Anode: Controlled Sodium Nucleation via Deactivation of Current Collector Surface". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 : 1-8. 10.1039/C8TA07610C.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA07610C[53] J. H. Ryu, J. Park, J. Park, J. Mun, E. Im, H. Lee, S. Y. Hong, K. An, G. Lee, Y. Kim, P. S. Jo, and S. J. Kang. (2022). "Carbothermal Shock-Induced Bifunctional Pt-Co Alloy Electrocatalysts for High-Performance Seawater Batteries". Energy Storage Materials. 45 : 281-290. 10.1016/j.ensm.2021.11.036.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2021.11.036[54] M. Sotoudeh and A. Groß. (2022). "Stability of Magnesium Binary and Ternary Compounds for Batteries Determined from First Principles". The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 13 : 10092-10100. 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c02316.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c02316[55] P. Manikandan, K. Kishor, J. Han, and Y. Kim. (2018). "Advanced Perspective on Synchronized Bifunctional Activities of P2-Type Material to Implement Interconnected Voltage Profile for Seawater Battery". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 : 1-10. 10.1039/C8TA02667J.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA02667J[56] L. Lin, N. Miao, G. G. Wallace, J. Chen, and D. A. Allwood. (2021). "Engineering Carbon Materials for Electrochemical Oxygen Reduction Reactions". Advanced Energy Materials. 11 : 2100695. 10.1002/aenm.202100695.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202100695[57] R. Ma, G. Lin, Y. Zhou, Q. Liu, T. Zhang, G. Shan, M. Yang, and J. Wang. (2019). "A Review of Oxygen Reduction Mechanisms for Metal-Free Carbon-Based Electrocatalysts". npj Computational Materials. 5 : 78. 10.1038/s41524-019-0210-3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41524-019-0210-3[58] W. Jiao, Y. Fan, C. Huang, and Sanglin. (2018). "Effect of Modified Polyacrylonitrile-Based Carbon Fiber on the Oxygen Reduction Reactions in Seawater Batteries". Ionics. 24 : 285-296. 10.1007/s11581-017-2197-4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-017-2197-4[59] N. D. K. Tu, S. O. Park, J. Park, Y. Kim, S. K. Kwak, and S. J. Kang. (2020). "Pyridinic-Nitrogen-Containing Carbon Cathode: Efficient Electrocatalyst for Seawater Batteries". ACS Applied Energy Materials. 3 : 1602-1608. 10.1021/acsaem.9b02087.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b02087[60] M. M. Huie, D. C. Bock, E. S. Takeuchi, A. C. Marschilok, and K. J. Takeuchi. (2015). "Cathode Materials for Magnesium and Magnesium-Ion Based Batteries". Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 287 : 15-27. 10.1016/j.ccr.2014.11.005.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2014.11.005[61] H. Kobayashi. (2024). "Development of Oxide-Type Cathode Materials Towards Room-Temperature Magnesium Rechargeable Batteries". Electrochemistry. 92 : 101004. 10.5796/electrochemistry.24-00068.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5796/electrochemistry.24-00068[62] Z. Khan, S. O. Park, J. Yang, S. Park, R. Shanker, H. K. Song, Y. Kim, S. K. Kwak, and H. Ko. (2018). "Binary N,S-Doped Carbon Nanospheres from Bio-Inspired Artificial Melanosomes: A Route to Efficient Air Electrodes for Seawater Batteries". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 : 24459-24467. 10.1039/C8TA10327E.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA10327E[63] J. Park, J. S. Park, S. T. Senthilkumar, and Y. Kim. (2020). "Hybridization of Cathode Electrochemistry in a Rechargeable Seawater Battery: Toward Performance Enhancement". Journal of Power Sources. 450 : 227600. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227600.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.227600[64] L. Gu, X. L. Sun, J. Zhao, B. Q. Gong, Z. L. Bao, H. L. Jia, M. Y. Guan, and S. S. Ma. (2021). "A Highly Efficient Bifunctional Electrocatalyst (ORR/OER) Derived from GO Functionalized with Carbonyl, Hydroxyl and Epoxy Groups for Rechargeable Zinc-Air Batteries". New Journal of Chemistry. 45 : 6535-6542. 10.1039/D1NJ00837D.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NJ00837D[65] M. Li, C. Bao, Y. Liu, J. Meng, X. Liu, Y. Cai, D. Wuu, Y. Zong, T. P. Loh, and Z. Wang. (2019). "Reduced Graphene Oxide-Supported Cobalt Oxide Decorated N-Doped Graphitic Carbon for Efficient Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysis". RSC Advances. 9 : 16534-16540. 10.1039/C9RA02389E.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA02389E[66] W. Wei, J. Xu, W. Chen, L. Mi, and J. Zhang. (2022). "A review of sodium chloride-based electrolytes and materials for electrochemical energy technology". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 10 (6): 2637-2671. 10.1039/d1ta09371a.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1TA09371A[67] Z. Le, W. Li, Q. Dang, C. Jing, W. Zhang, J. Chu, L. Tang, and M. Hu. (2021). "A High-Power Seawater Battery Working in a Wide Temperature Range Enabled by an Ultra-Stable Prussian Blue Analogue Cathode". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 9 : 8685-8691. 10.1039/D0TA12052A.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0TA12052A[68] J. Xie, W. Chen, G. Long, W. Gao, Z. J. Xu, M. Liu, and Q. Zhang. (2018). "Boosting the Performance of Organic Cathodes Through Structure Tuning". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 : 12985-12991. 10.1039/C8TA03857K.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA03857K[69] D. Lu, H. Liu, T. Huang, Z. Xu, L. Ma, P. Yang, P. Qiang, F. Zhang, and D. Wu. (2018). "Magnesium Ions Based Organic Secondary Battery". Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 6 : 17297-17302. 10.1039/C8TA05230A.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C8TA05230A[70] M. Kong, L. Bu, and W. Wang. (2021). "Investigations on the Discharge/Charge Process of a Novel AgCl/Ag/Carbon Felt Composite Electrode Used for Seawater Batteries". Journal of Power Sources. 506 : 230210. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230210.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.230210[71] T. Kakibe, J. Hishii, N. Yoshimoto, M. Egashira, and M. Morita. (2012). "Binary Ionic Liquid Electrolytes Containing Organo-Magnesium Complex for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries". Journal of Power Sources. 203 : 195-200. 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.10.127.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.10.127[72] Y. Liang, H. D. Yoo, Y. Li, J. Shuai, H. A. Calderon, F. C. R. Hernandez, L. C. Grabow, and Y. Yao. (2015). "Interlayer-Expanded Molybdenum Disulfide Nanocomposites for Electrochemical Magnesium Storage". Nano Letters. 15 : 2194-2202. 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00388.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b00388[73] K. H. Shin, J. Park, S. K. Park, P. Nakhanivej, S. M. Hwang, Y. Kim, and H. S. Park. (2019). "Cobalt Vanadate Nanoparticles as Bifunctional Oxygen Electrocatalysts for Rechargeable Seawater Batteries". Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 72 : 250-254. 10.1016/j.jiec.2018.12.025.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2018.12.025[74] C. Mu, J. Mao, J. Guo, Q. Guo, Z. Li, W. Qin, Z. Hu, K. Davey, T. Ling, and S. Z. Qiao. (2020). "Rational Design of Spinel Cobalt Vanadate Oxide Co2VO4 for Superior Electrocatalysis". Advanced Materials. 32 (10): 1907168. 10.1002/adma.201907168.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201907168[75] M. Abirami, S. M. Hwang, J. Yang, S. T. Senthilkumar, J. Kim, W. S. Go, B. Senthilkumar, H. K. Song, and Y. Kim. (2016). "A Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Porous Cobalt Manganese Oxide Bifunctional Electrocatalyst for Hybrid Na-Air/Seawater Batteries". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 8 : 32778-32787. 10.1021/acsami.6b10082.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b10082[76] C. Kim, S. Kim, O. Kwon, J. Kim, and G. Kim. (2019). "Polypyrrole-Assisted Co3O4 Anchored Carbon Fiber as a Binder-Free Electrode for Seawater Batteries". ChemElectroChem. 6 : 1-10. 10.1002/celc.201801219.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/celc.201801219[77] X. He, R. Cheng, X. Sun, H. Xu, Z. Li, F. Sun, Y. Zhan, J. Zou, and R. M. Laine. (2023). "Organic Cathode Materials for Rechargeable Magnesium-Ion Batteries: Fundamentals, Recent Advances, and Approaches to Optimization". Journal of Magnesium and Alloys. 11 : 4359-4389. 10.1016/j.jma.2023.11.008.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jma.2023.11.008[78] J. T. Mefford, X. Rong, A. M. Abakumov, W. G. Hardin, S. Dai, A. M. Kolpak, K. P. Johnston, and K. J. Stevenson. (2016). "Water Electrolysis on La1-xSrxCoO3-d Perovskite Electrocatalysts". Nature Communications. 7 : 11053. 10.1038/ncomms11053.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11053[79] J. Lee, I. Choi, E. Kim, J. Park, and K. W. Nam. (2024). "Metal-Organic Frameworks for High-Performance Cathodes in Batteries". iScience. 27 : 110211. 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110211.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.110211[80] Z. Yu, T. R. Juran, X. Liu, K. S. Han, H. Wang, K. T. Mueller, L. Ma, K. Xu, T. Li, L. A. Curtiss, and L. Cheng. (2021). "Solvation Structure and Dynamics of Mg(TFSI)2 Aqueous Electrolyte". Energy & Environmental Materials. 4 : 761-772. 10.1002/eem2.12174.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eem2.12174[81] Y. He, Q. Li, L. Yang, C. Yang, and D. Xu. (2019). "Electrochemical Conditioning-Free and Water-Resistance of the Hybrid AlCl3/MgCl2/Mg(TFSI)2 Electrolytes for Rechargeable Mg Batteries". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 58 : 11978-11982. 10.1002/anie.201812824.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201812824[82] Z. Ma, M. Kar, C. Xiao, M. Forsyth, and D. R. MacFarlane. (2017). "Electrochemical Cycling of Mg in Mg[TFSI]2/Tetraglyme Electrolytes". Electrochemistry Communications. 78 : 29-32. 10.1016/j.elecom.2017.03.018.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elecom.2017.03.018[83] R. Jay, A. W. Tomich, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, A. De Gorostiza, V. Lavallo, and J. Guo. (2019). "A Comparative Study of Mg(CB11H12)2 and Mg(TFSI)2 at the Magnesium/Electrolyte Interface". ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces. 11 : 11414-11422. 10.1021/acsami.9b00037.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b00037