Journal of Multidisciplinary Applied Natural Science
##plugins.themes.gdThemes.journalSlogan##
Scopus CiteScore 2024
4.8
Calculated on 05 May, 2025
SJR 2024
0.31
Powered by scimagojr.com
##plugins.themes.gdThemes.journalSlogan##
4.8
Calculated on 05 May, 2025
0.31
Powered by scimagojr.com
https://doi.org/10.47352/jmans.2774-3047.262
Theresia Adven Dea Kristiani
Amir Husni
Alim Isnansetyo
Acne is a prevalent skin disorder, particularly among adolescents, causing significant physical and psychological impacts. Ongoing efforts are dedicated to acne treatment by developing therapeutic agents with enhanced effectiveness while minimizing side effects. In this study, we aimed to assess the potential of Sargassum cristaefolium sourced from Teluk Awur Jepara, extracted using ethanol, in combating acne through its in vitro antibacterial and antioxidant attributes. Utilizing the disk diffusion method, our findings demonstrated the extract's efficacy against Cutibacterium acne, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration were determined to be 50 and >100 mg mL-1 against C. acnes, 25 and 100 mg mL-1 against S. epidermidis, and 25 and 100 mg mL-1 against S. aureus, respectively. Additionally, bacteriolytic assays confirmed the extract's ability to partially lyse bacterial cells, particularly S. aureus and S. epidermidis at 2× MIC, while C. acne exhibited partial lysis until the 6th hour, followed by an increase in absorbance, possibly due to cellular debris aggregation or bacterial persistence due to incomplete lysis. Furthermore, the extract exhibited notable free radical scavenging properties against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), with IC50 values of 645.35 ± 9.52 and 574 ± 33.52 µg mL-1, respectively. The S. cristaefolium ethanol extract exhibited a total phenol content of 14.17 ± 0.39 mg GAE g-1 and a sulfate content of 10.99 ± 0.45%. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis identified bioactive compounds, including carotenoids, terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, chromenols, and fatty acids, all of which demonstrate substantial potential as antioxidants and antibacterial agents against acne-causing bacteria. Therefore, ethanolic extract of S. cristaefolium demonstrates potential as an anti-acne treatment due to its antibacterial and antioxidant properties.
[1] J. M.-L. Kok, J.-M. Jee, L.-Y. Chew, and C.-L. Wong. (2016). "The potential of the brown seaweed Sargassum polycystum against acne vulgaris". Journal of Applied Phycology. 28 (5): 3127-3133. 10.1007/s10811-016-0825-4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-016-0825-4[2] J.-H. Lee, S.-H. Eom, E.-H. Lee, Y.-J. Jung, H.-J. Kim, M.-R. Jo, K.-T. Son, H.-J. Lee, J. H. Kim, M.-S. Lee, and Y.-M. Kim. (2014). "In vitro antibacterial and synergistic effect of phlorotannins isolated from edible brown seaweed Eisenia bicyclis against acne-related bacteria". Algae. 29 (1): 47-55. 10.4490/algae.2014.29.1.047.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4490/algae.2014.29.1.047[3] L. Legiawati, P. A. Halim, M. Fitriani, H. G. Hikmahrachim, and H. W. Lim. (2023). "Microbiomes in Acne Vulgaris and Their Susceptibility to Antibiotics in Indonesia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Antibiotics (Basel). 12 (1). 10.3390/antibiotics12010145.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12010145[4] B. Kumar, R. Pathak, P. B. Mary, D. Jha, K. Sardana, and H. K. Gautam. (2016). "New insights into acne pathogenesis: Exploring the role of acne-associated microbial populations". Dermatologica Sinica. 34 (2): 67-73. 10.1016/j.dsi.2015.12.004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsi.2015.12.004[5] H. A. Al-Shobaili. (2014). "Oxidants and anti-oxidants status in Acne vulgaris patients with varying severity". Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science. 44 (2): 202-207.
[6] M. A. T. Blaskovich, A. G. Elliott, A. M. Kavanagh, S. Ramu, and M. A. Cooper. (2019). "In vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Acne Drugs Against Skin-Associated Bacteria". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 14658. 10.1038/s41598-019-50746-4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-50746-4[7] A. H. Sutaria, S. Masood, H. M. Saleh, and J. Schlessinger. (2024)." Acne vulgaris". StatPearls Publishing.
[8] J. P. D. Garrett and D. J. Margolis. (2012). "Impact of Long-Term Antibiotic Use for Acne on Bacterial Ecology and Health Outcomes: A Review of Observational Studies". Current Dermatology Reports. 1 (1): 23-28. 10.1007/s13671-011-0001-7.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13671-011-0001-7[9] D. M. Weiner and W. D. James. (2021). "Acne and antibiotics: a look back". International Journal of Dermatology. 60 (8): 1019-1027. 10.1111/ijd.15550.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.15550[10] N. Nikalji, K. Godse, J. Sakhiya, S. Patil, and N. Nadkarni. (2012). "Complications of medium depth and deep chemical peels". Journal of Cutaneous and Aesthetic Surgery. 5 (4): 254-60. 10.4103/0974-2077.104913.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2077.104913[11] R. Sharma, N. Kishore, A. Hussein, and N. Lall. (2013). "Antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects of Syzygium jambos L. (Alston) and isolated compounds on acne vulgaris". BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 13 : 292. 10.1186/1472-6882-13-292.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-13-292[12] M. J. Yim, J. M. Lee, H. S. Kim, G. Choi, Y. M. Kim, D. S. Lee, and I. W. Choi. (2020). "Inhibitory Effects of a Sargassum miyabei Yendo on Cutibacterium acnes-Induced Skin Inflammation". Nutrients. 12 (9). 10.3390/nu12092620.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092620[13] Z. F. Harhara, D. Suryani, and A. L. Sunarwidhi. (2021). "Uji Aktivitas Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Rumput Laut Cokelat (Sargassum cristaefolium) terhadap Staphylococcus epidermidis". Lumbung Farmasi: Jurnal Ilmu Kefarmasian. 2 (2). 10.31764/lf.v2i2.5497.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31764/lf.v2i2.5497[14] E. S. Prasedya, N. W. R. Martyasari, R. Apriani, S. Mayshara, R. A. Fanani, and H. Sunarpi. (2019). "Antioxidant activity of Ulva lactuca L. from different coastal locations of Lombok Island, Indonesia". AIP Conference Proceedings. 10.1063/1.5141281.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5141281[15] N. Y. Rahmani, S. W. Ningsih, V. I. Wulandari, and M. Farhana. (2018). "Pemanfaatan Sargassum sp. dalam peningkatan ekonomi masyarakat pesisir Desa Teluk Awur Jepara". Seminar Nasional Kolaborasi Pengabdian Pada Masyarakat. 1 : 483-487.
[16] I. Prabowo, A. Shaliha, and O. S. Puspita. (2022). "Antimicrobial effectiveness of apple cider vinegar in the growth of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes". Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1 (1): 13-20. 10.33533/jrpps.v1i1.4171.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33533/jrpps.v1i1.4171[17] R. Mustarichie, S. Sulistyaningsih, and D. Runadi. (2020). "Antibacterial Activity Test of Extracts and Fractions of Cassava Leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) against Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes Causing Acne". International Journal of Microbiology. 2020 : 1975904. 10.1155/2020/1975904.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1975904[18] A. Isnansetyo and Y. Kamei. (2003). "MC21-A, a bactericidal antibiotic produced by a new marine bacterium, Pseudoalteromonas phenolica sp. nov. O-BC30(T), against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 47 (2): 480-8. 10.1128/AAC.47.2.480-488.2003.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.47.2.480-488.2003[19] J. Vora, A. Srivastava, and H. Modi. (2018). "Antibacterial and antioxidant strategies for acne treatment through plant extracts". Informatics in Medicine Unlocked. 13 : 128-132. 10.1016/j.imu.2017.10.005.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imu.2017.10.005[20] N. Blanc, D. Hauchard, L. Audibert, and E. A. Gall. (2011). "Radical-scavenging capacity of phenol fractions in the brown seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum: an electrochemical approach". Talanta. 84 (2): 513-8. 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.01.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2011.01.034[21] V. Alagan, R. Valsala, and K. Rajesh. (2017). "Bioactive Chemical Constituent Analysis, in vitro Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Whole Plant Methanol Extracts of Ulva lactuca Linn". British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 15 (1): 1-14. 10.9734/bjpr/2017/31818.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/BJPR/2017/31818[22] H. S. A. Koh, J. Lu, and W. Zhou. (2019). "Structure characterization and antioxidant activity of fucoidan isolated from Undaria pinnatifida grown in New Zealand". Carbohydrate Polymers. 212 : 178-185. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.02.040.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.02.040[23] E. S. Prasedya, A. Frediansyah, N. W. R. Martyasari, B. K. Ilhami, A. S. Abidin, H. Padmi, Fahrurrozi, A. B. Juanssilfero, S. Widyastuti, and A. L. Sunarwidhi. (2021). "Effect of particle size on phytochemical composition and antioxidant properties of Sargassum cristaefolium ethanol extract". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 17876. 10.1038/s41598-021-95769-y.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95769-y[24] Y. H. Sipahutar, N. Albaar, H. B. Purnamasari, M. G. Kristiany, and D. H. G. Prabowo. (2019). "Seaweed extract (Sargassum polycystum) as a preservative on sunscreen cream with the addition of seaweed porridge". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 278 (1). 10.1088/1755-1315/278/1/012072.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/278/1/012072[25] J. Juliana, L. Dangeubun, and D. Y. Syahailatua. (2016). "Antibacterial and phytochemistrial activity test of brown macroalgae extract towards Vibrio algynoliticus bactery through in-vitro fertilization". International Journal of Tropical Medicine. 11 (6): 186-193.
[26] B. Susilo, A. Rohim, and M. L. Wahyu. (2022). "Serial Extraction Technique of Rich Antibacterial Compounds in Sargassum cristaefolium Using Different Solvents and Testing their Activity". Current Bioactive Compounds. 18 (3). 10.2174/1573407217666210910095732.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1573407217666210910095732[27] F. D. Sangkia, G. S. Gerung, and R. I. Montolalu. (2019). "Analysis of growth and quality of seaweed carrageenan Kappaphycus alvarezii in different locations on the Banggai’s Waters, Central Sulawesi". Aquatic Science & Management. 6 (1). 10.35800/jasm.6.1.2018.24812.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35800/jasm.6.1.2018.24812[28] W. W. Davis and T. R. Stout. (1971). "Disc plate method of microbiological antibiotic assay. I. Factors influencing variability and error". Applied Microbiology. 22 (4): 659-65. 10.1128/am.22.4.659-665.1971.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/am.22.4.659-665.1971[29] M. E. Łanocha and B. Bergler-Czop. (2023). "Topical treatment of acne using a compounded medication based on clindamycin". Forum Dermatologicum. 10.5603/fd.96176.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5603/fd.96176[30] Y. J. Park, C. W. Kim, and H. K. Lee. (2019). "Interactions between Host Immunity and Skin-Colonizing Staphylococci: No Two Siblings Are Alike". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 20 (3). 10.3390/ijms20030718.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030718[31] L. A. Onyango, R. H. Dunstan, J. Gottfries, C. von Eiff, and T. K. Roberts. (2012). "Effect of low temperature on growth and ultra-structure of Staphylococcus spp". PLoS One. 7 (1): e29031. 10.1371/journal.pone.0029031.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029031[32] M. Xie, Z. Pu, L. Gao, R. Yuan, Z. Dongzhi, T. Dikye, S. Huang, and B. Li. (2022). Research Square. 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1743928/v1.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1743928/v1[33] E. S. Prasedya, N. W. R. Martyasari, A. S. Abidin, S. A. Pebriani, B. T. K. Ilhami, A. Frediansyah, A. L. Sunarwidhi, S. Widyastuti, and H. Sunarpi. (2020). "Macroalgae Sargassum cristaefolium Extract Inhibits Proinflammatory Cytokine Expression in BALB/C Mice". Scientifica (Cairo). 2020 : 9769454. 10.1155/2020/9769454.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/9769454[34] S. Pouladi. (2019). "Antibacterial activity of Sargassum cristaefolium and Dictyota cervicornis against to bacteria". Bacterial Empire. 2 (1). 10.36547/be.2019.2.1.26-29.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.36547/be.2019.2.1.26-29[35] K. M, hasamy, and D. A. K. (2008). "Evaluation of in vitro antibacterial property of seaweeds of southeast coast of India". African Journal of Biotechnology. 7 (12): 1958-1961. 10.5897/ajb08.120.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB08.120[36] J. M. Schuurmans, A. S. Nuri Hayali, B. B. Koenders, and B. H. ter Kuile. (2009). "Variations in MIC value caused by differences in experimental protocol". Journal of Microbiological Methods. 79 (1): 44-7. 10.1016/j.mimet.2009.07.017.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2009.07.017[37] D. Radhika, C. Veerabahu, R. Priya, and A. Mohaideen. (2014). "A comparative study of biopotential of crude and fractionated extracts of some sea weeds from tuticorin coast". International Journal of Phytopharmacology. 5 (1): 27-30.
[38] B. V. Peechakara, H. Basit, and M. Gupta.(2024)." Ampicillin". StatPearls Publishing.
[39] V. Syafriana, R. N. Purba, and Y. S. Djuhariah. (2021). "Antibacterial Activity of <i>Kecombrang</i> Flower (<i>Etlingera elatior</i> (Jack) R.M. Sm) Extract against <i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i> and <i>Propionibacterium acnes</i>". Journal of Tropical Biodiversity and Biotechnology. 6 (1). 10.22146/jtbb.58528.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22146/jtbb.58528[40] R. Rohimat, I. Widowati, and A. Trianto. (2014). "Aktivitas antioksidan dan ekstrak metanol rumput laut coklat yang dokeleksi dari pantai Rancabuaya Garut Jawa Barat". Journal of Marine Research. 3 (3): 304-313.
[41] E. Erniati, S. Syahrial, E. Erlangga, I. Imanullah, and Y. Andika. (2024). "Aktivitas antioksidan dan total fenol rumput laut Sargassum sp. dari Perairan Simeulue Aceh". Jurnal Pengolahan Hasil Perikanan Indonesia. 27 (3): 186-196. 10.17844/jphpi.v27i3.46981.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.17844/jphpi.v27i3.46981[42] D. Martysiak-Żurowska and W. Wenta. (2012). "A comparison of ABTS and DPPH methods for assessing the total antioxidant capacity of human milk". Acta scientiarum polonorum. Technologia alimentaria. 11 (1): 83-89.
[43] M. E. Giordano, R. Caricato, and M. G. Lionetto. (2020). "Concentration Dependence of the Antioxidant and Prooxidant Activity of Trolox in HeLa Cells: Involvement in the Induction of Apoptotic Volume Decrease". Antioxidants (Basel). 9 (11). 10.3390/antiox9111058.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9111058[44] S. Aryal, M. K. Baniya, K. Danekhu, P. Kunwar, R. Gurung, and N. Koirala. (2019). "Total Phenolic Content, Flavonoid Content and Antioxidant Potential of Wild Vegetables from Western Nepal". Plants (Basel). 8 (4). 10.3390/plants8040096.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8040096[45] A. Ahwan, A. Suwarni, R. Ariastuti, R. Hafidz, and S. Mei Enjelina. (2024). "Effect of total phenolic and total flavonoid levels on the antioxidant power of water extract, ethanol and chloroform of green tea leaves (Camellia sinensis l)". Medical Sains : Jurnal Ilmiah Kefarmasian. 9 (1): 17-28. 10.37874/ms.v9i1.940.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37874/ms.v9i1.940[46] M. Puspita, M. Deniel, I. Widowati, O. K. Radjasa, P. Douzenel, G. Bedoux, and N. Bourgougnon. (2017). "Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of solid-liquid and enzyme-assisted extraction of phenolic compound from three species of tropicalSargassum". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 55. 10.1088/1755-1315/55/1/012057.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/55/1/012057[47] H. Kartikaningsih. (2020). "Antibakteri Ekstrak Etanol Serbuk Kering Sargassum cristaefolium Terhadap Bakteri Escherischia coli dan Salmonella thyposa". JFMR-Journal of Fisheries and Marine Research. 4 (1): 53-60. 10.21776/ub.jfmr.2020.004.01.8.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21776/ub.jfmr.2020.004.01.8[48] C. Y. Chen, S. H. Wang, C. Y. Huang, C. D. Dong, C. Y. Huang, C. C. Chang, and J. S. Chang. (2021). "Effect of molecular mass and sulfate content of fucoidan from Sargassum siliquosum on antioxidant, anti-lipogenesis, and anti-inflammatory activity". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 132 (4): 359-364. 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2021.06.005.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2021.06.005[49] C. Y. Wang, T. C. Wu, S. L. Hsieh, Y. H. Tsai, C. W. Yeh, and C. Y. Huang. (2015). "Antioxidant activity and growth inhibition of human colon cancer cells by crude and purified fucoidan preparations extracted from Sargassum cristaefolium". Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 23 (4): 766-777. 10.1016/j.jfda.2015.07.002.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfda.2015.07.002[50] N. Rhein-Knudsen, D. Reyes-Weiss, and S. J. Horn. (2023). "Extraction of high purity fucoidans from brown seaweeds using cellulases and alginate lyases". International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 229 : 199-209. 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.261.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.261[51] S. J. Lim, W. M. Wan Aida, S. Schiehser, T. Rosenau, and S. Bohmdorfer. (2019). "Structural elucidation of fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus (Okinawa mozuku)". Food Chemistry. 272 : 222-226. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.034.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.08.034[52] C. Ikeda, Y. Manabe, N. Tomonaga, T. Wada, T. Maoka, and T. Sugawara. (2020). "Evaluation of Intestinal Absorption of Dietary Halocynthiaxanthin, a Carotenoid from the Sea Squirt Halocynthia roretzi". Marine Drugs. 18 (12). 10.3390/md18120588.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md18120588[53] R. Pangestuti and S. Wibowo. (2013). "Prospects and Health Promoting Effects of Brown Algal-derived Natural Pigments". Squalen Bulletin of Marine and Fisheries Postharvest and Biotechnology. 8 (1). 10.15578/squalen.v8i1.26.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15578/squalen.v8i1.26[54] A. Alves, E. Sousa, A. Kijjoa, and M. Pinto. (2020). "Marine-Derived Compounds with Potential Use as Cosmeceuticals and Nutricosmetics". Molecules. 25 (11). 10.3390/molecules25112536.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25112536[55] S. H. Park, D. S. Kim, S. Kim, L. R. Lorz, E. Choi, H. Y. Lim, M. A. Hossain, S. Jang, Y. I. Choi, K. J. Park, K. Yoon, J. H. Kim, and J. Y. Cho. (2019). "Loliolide Presents Antiapoptosis and Antiscratching Effects in Human Keratinocytes". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 20 (3). 10.3390/ijms20030651.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030651[56] S. Radman, M. Cagalj, V. Simat, and I. Jerkovic. (2023). "Seasonal Monitoring of Volatiles and Antioxidant Activity of Brown Alga Cladostephus spongiosus". Marine Drugs. 21 (7). 10.3390/md21070415.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md21070415[57] Y. Park, L. Cao, S. Baek, S. Jeong, H. J. Yun, M. B. Kim, and S. G. Lee. (2024). "The Role of Sargahydroquinoic Acid and Sargachromenol in the Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Sargassum yezoense". Marine Drugs. 22 (3): 10.3390/md22030107.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md22030107[58] I. Effendi, M. R. Prayogi, and A. Mulyadi. (2023). "Antibacterial activity of Eucheuma spinosum extract against Vibrio alginolyticus and Aeromonas hydrophila". AACL Bioflux. 16 (2): 1105-1113.
[59] Y. Qiu, G. Lin, W. Liu, F. Zhang, R. J. Linhardt, X. Wang, and A. Zhang. (2024). "Bioactive compounds in Hericium erinaceus and their biological properties: a review". Food Science and Human Wellness. 13 (4): 1825-1844. 10.26599/fshw.2022.9250152.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.26599/FSHW.2022.9250152[60] M. Grabarczyk, K. Wińska, W. Mączka, B. Potaniec, and M. Anioł. (2015). "Loliolide - the most ubiquitous lactone". Folia Biologica et Oecologica. 11 : 1-8. 10.1515/fobio-2015-0001.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/fobio-2015-0001[61] D. Armanini, C. Sabbadin, G. Dona, G. Clari, and L. Bordin. (2014). "Aldosterone receptor blockers spironolactone and canrenone: two multivalent drugs". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 15 (7): 909-12. 10.1517/14656566.2014.896901.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2014.896901[62] H. R. Buser, M. E. Balmer, P. Schmid, and M. Kohler. (2006). "Occurrence of UV filters 4-methylbenzylidene camphor and octocrylene in fish from various Swiss rivers with inputs from wastewater treatment plants". Environmental Science & Technology. 40 (5): 1427-31. 10.1021/es052088s.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/es052088s[63] J. Peng, J. P. Yuan, C. F. Wu, and J. H. Wang. (2011). "Fucoxanthin, a marine carotenoid present in brown seaweeds and diatoms: metabolism and bioactivities relevant to human health". Marine Drugs. 9 (10): 1806-1828. 10.3390/md9101806.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md9101806[64] V. Escrig, A. Ubeda, M. L. Ferrandiz, J. Darias, J. M. Sanchez, M. J. Alcaraz, and M. Paya. (1997). "Variabilin: A Dual Inhibitor of Human Secretory and Cytosolic Phospholipase A2 With Anti-inflammatory Activity". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 282 (1): 123-131. 10.1016/s0022-3565(24)36811-9.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3565(24)36811-9[65] B. Krol and A. Kieltyka-Dadasiewicz. (2015). "Contemporary evidence on stearidonic acid health-promoting effects". Agro Food Industry hi-Tech. 26 (4): 43-45.
[66] N. M. Sachindra, E. Sato, H. Maeda, M. Hosokawa, Y. Niwano, M. Kohno, and K. Miyashita. (2007). "Radical scavenging and singlet oxygen quenching activity of marine carotenoid fucoxanthin and its metabolites". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55 (21): 8516-22. 10.1021/jf071848a.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf071848a[67] A. Urzua, M. C. Rezende, C. Mascayano, and L. Vasquez. (2008). "A structure-activity study of antibacterial diterpenoids". Molecules. 13 (4): 882-91. 10.3390/molecules13040822.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules13040822[68] G. Yuan, X. Xia, Y. Guan, H. Yi, S. Lai, Y. Sun, and S. Cao. (2022). "Antimicrobial Quantitative Relationship and Mechanism of Plant Flavonoids to Gram-Positive Bacteria". Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 15 (10). 10.3390/ph15101190.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ph15101190[69] T. M. Karpinski, M. Ozarowski, R. Alam, M. Lochynska, and M. Stasiewicz. (2021). "What Do We Know about Antimicrobial Activity of Astaxanthin and Fucoxanthin?". Marine Drugs. 20 (1). 10.3390/md20010036.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/md20010036